Special counsels, like the one leading the Department of Justice's investigation of Trump, are intended to be independent – but they aren't entirely
- Written by Joshua Holzer, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Westminster College
When Attorney General Merrick Garland[1] appointed veteran prosecutor Jack Smith[2] as special counsel to oversee two criminal investigations into former President Donald Trump[3] on Nov. 18, 2022[4], Garland’s goal was to shield the probes from the appearance of partisanship.
But in immediate[5] and repeated[6] attacks, Trump[7], and some of his allies[8], alleged political bias[9] anyway. For instance, in one highly charged social media post, the former president argued that he won’t “get a fair shake from[10]” Smith.
Fairness and justice, though, are what Garland appointed Smith to deliver. In his announcement that Smith would take charge of the Department of Justice investigations into Trump’s role in the Jan. 6 insurrection[11] and Trump’s handling of classified government documents[12], Garland described Smith as someone who[13] “has built a reputation as an impartial and determined prosecutor.”
In his own statement, Smith, who most recently[14] investigated and prosecuted war crimes at the International Criminal Court[15] in The Hague[16], promised to[17] “independently … move the investigations forward … to whatever outcome the facts and the law dictate.”
From my perspective as a political scientist[18] who studies presidential systems, I believe that while special counsels are intended to be independent – in practice, they are aren’t entirely. Here’s why.
Independent and special counsels
Ensuring impartiality in the Department of Justice can be difficult, as the attorney general is appointed by[20] – and answerable to – a partisan president. This gives presidents the power to try to compel attorneys general, who head the department, to pursue a political agenda. President Richard Nixon[21] did this during the investigation of the Watergate break-in, which threatened to implicate him in criminal acts.
On the evening of Oct. 20, 1973[22], Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson[23] to fire Archibald Cox[24], whom Richardson had appointed to lead the Watergate investigation. Richardson refused and resigned. Nixon then ordered Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus[25] to fire Cox. Ruckelshaus also refused and resigned. Finally, Nixon ordered Solicitor General Robert Bork[26], the next most senior official at the Department of Justice, to fire Cox. Bork complied.
This shocking series of events, often referred to as the Saturday Night Massacre[27], demonstrated how presidents could exercise political power over criminal investigations.
As a result of the Watergate scandal, Congress passed the Ethics in Government Act of 1978[28]. This allowed for investigations into misconduct that could operate outside of presidential control.
After passage of this legislation, if the attorney general received “specific information” alleging that the president, vice president or other high-ranking executive branch officials[29] had committed a serious federal offense, the attorney general would ask a special three-judge panel to appoint an independent counsel, which would investigate.
The Ethics in Government Act also disqualified Department of Justice employees, including the attorney general, from participating in any investigation or prosecution that could “result in a personal, financial, or political conflict of interest, or the appearance thereof[30].”
In the decades since the law’s passage, independent counsels investigated Republicans[31] and Democrats[32] alike. In 1999, Congress[33] let the Ethics in Government Act expire. That year, then-Attorney General Janet Reno authorized[34] the appointment of special counsels, who could investigate certain sensitive matters, similar to the way independent counsels operated.
Robert Mueller, who was appointed in 2017[35] by Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein to investigate possible Russian interference in the 2016 elections[36] and possible links between the Trump campaign and the Russian government[37], was a special counsel. Some Republicans accused him of bias[38], despite his long career serving under both Democratic and Republican presidents[39].
In 2020[40], John Durham – another veteran[41] of the Department of Justice – was appointed as special counsel to investigate the origins of the investigation that triggered Mueller’s appointment. Michael Sussmann, a former Democratic Party lawyer and target of that probe, accused Durham of political prosecution[42]. Sussmann was later acquitted[43].
Politicizing the process
Although special counsels were meant to resemble independent counsels, there are notable differences.
For instance[44], while special counsels operate independently of the attorney general, both their appointment and the scope of their investigations are determined by the attorney general. In contrast, the appointment of independent counsels and the scope of their investigations were determined by a three-judge panel, which in turn was appointed by the chief justice of the United States[45].
Also, since Congress authorized independent counsels, presidential influence was limited by law. In contrast, since Department of Justice regulations authorize special counsels, a president could try to compel the attorney general to change departmental interpretation of these regulations – or even just revoke them entirely – to influence or end[46] a special counsel investigation.
For example, at one point, Trump wanted to fire Mueller[47]. After his attorney general, Jeff Sessions[48], who had recused himself from the Russia probe, did not “end the phony Russia Witch Hunt[49],” Trump fired him.
Seemingly supportive of this, William Barr[50], who had served as attorney general under President George W. Bush[51], sent an unsolicited memo to the Department of Justice defending Trump by arguing that presidents have “complete authority to start or stop a law enforcement proceeding[52].”
Unsurprisingly[53], Trump then chose[54] Barr to replace Sessions[55] as attorney general.
In my own research[56], I have found[57] that abuses of power are more common in situations in which the president and the attorney general are political allies.
For instance, after Mueller finished his report[58] in 2019, Barr released a summary[59] of its “principal conclusions.” Later, Barr’s summary was criticized[60] for “not fully captur[ing] the context, nature, and substance of[61]” Mueller’s work.
In 2020, a Republican-appointed judge ruled[62] that Barr “failed to provide a thorough representation of the findings set forth in the Mueller Report” and questioned whether Barr had “made a calculated attempt to influence public discourse … in favor of President Trump.”
To be or not to be free of partisanship
The independence of the Department of Justice rests, in part, on who occupies the offices of president and attorney general.
Trump, for example, saw himself[63] as “the chief law enforcement officer of the country” and thought it was appropriate to “be totally involved.”
Meanwhile, President Joe Biden[64] has a long history[65] of supporting the independence of Department of Justice investigations, dating as far back as his 1987-1995 tenure as chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee[66].
Barr once argued[67] that the attorney general’s role is to advance “all colorable arguments that can [be] mustered … when the president determines an action is within his authority – even if that conclusion is debatable.”
In contrast, Garland – a former U.S. circuit judge – insists[68] that “political or other improper considerations must play no role in any investigative or prosecutorial decisions.”
Given that Trump[69] and Biden[70] may end up facing off in 2024[71], it makes sense that Garland would want to appoint a special counsel in order to avoid directly overseeing any investigations into a political opponent of the president under whom he serves.
Still, Smith will not be entirely independent of Garland, just as Garland is not entirely independent[72] of Biden.
References
- ^ Merrick Garland (www.justice.gov)
- ^ Jack Smith (www.nytimes.com)
- ^ Donald Trump (www.whitehouse.gov)
- ^ Nov. 18, 2022 (www.justice.gov)
- ^ immediate (truthsocial.com)
- ^ repeated (truthsocial.com)
- ^ Trump (www.youtube.com)
- ^ allies (truthsocial.com)
- ^ political bias (truthsocial.com)
- ^ get a fair shake from (truthsocial.com)
- ^ Jan. 6 insurrection (theconversation.com)
- ^ handling of classified government documents (theconversation.com)
- ^ as someone who (www.justice.gov)
- ^ who most recently (www.npr.org)
- ^ the International Criminal Court (www.icc-cpi.int)
- ^ The Hague (www.denhaag.nl)
- ^ promised to (www.justice.gov)
- ^ a political scientist (scholar.google.com)
- ^ AP Photo/Peter Dejong, Pool (newsroom.ap.org)
- ^ appointed by (theconversation.com)
- ^ Richard Nixon (www.whitehouse.gov)
- ^ Oct. 20, 1973 (www.npr.org)
- ^ Elliot Richardson (www.justice.gov)
- ^ Archibald Cox (www.justice.gov)
- ^ William Ruckelshaus (www.npr.org)
- ^ Robert Bork (www.justice.gov)
- ^ Saturday Night Massacre (www.youtube.com)
- ^ Ethics in Government Act of 1978 (www.congress.gov)
- ^ high-ranking executive branch officials (www.law.cornell.edu)
- ^ result in a personal, financial, or political conflict of interest, or the appearance thereof (www.congress.gov)
- ^ Republicans (www.hsdl.org)
- ^ Democrats (www.govinfo.gov)
- ^ Congress (www.cnn.com)
- ^ authorized (www.washingtonpost.com)
- ^ 2017 (www.justice.gov)
- ^ possible Russian interference in the 2016 elections (theconversation.com)
- ^ possible links between the Trump campaign and the Russian government (theconversation.com)
- ^ bias (www.bbc.com)
- ^ both Democratic and Republican presidents (www.npr.org)
- ^ 2020 (www.justice.gov)
- ^ veteran (www.nbcconnecticut.com)
- ^ political prosecution (www.npr.org)
- ^ acquitted (www.nytimes.com)
- ^ For instance (sgp.fas.org)
- ^ chief justice of the United States (www.supremecourt.gov)
- ^ end (www.politico.com)
- ^ wanted to fire Mueller (www.nytimes.com)
- ^ Jeff Sessions (www.washingtonpost.com)
- ^ end the phony Russia Witch Hunt (twitter.com)
- ^ William Barr (www.justice.gov)
- ^ George W. Bush (www.whitehouse.gov)
- ^ complete authority to start or stop a law enforcement proceeding (www.wsj.com)
- ^ Unsurprisingly (theconversation.com)
- ^ chose (theconversation.com)
- ^ Sessions (theconversation.com)
- ^ In my own research (doi.org)
- ^ I have found (doi.org)
- ^ report (www.washingtonpost.com)
- ^ summary (www.washingtonpost.com)
- ^ criticized (yarmuth.house.gov)
- ^ not fully captur[ing] the context, nature, and substance of (www.washingtonpost.com)
- ^ ruled (context-cdn.washingtonpost.com)
- ^ saw himself (www.washingtonpost.com)
- ^ Joe Biden (www.whitehouse.gov)
- ^ a long history (scholarship.law.unc.edu)
- ^ 1987-1995 tenure as chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee (www.judiciary.senate.gov)
- ^ argued (www.washingtonpost.com)
- ^ insists (www.justice.gov)
- ^ Trump (www.youtube.com)
- ^ Biden (www.nbcnews.com)
- ^ 2024 (www.newyorker.com)
- ^ is not entirely independent (theconversation.com)
Authors: Joshua Holzer, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Westminster College
